Russian History: In Brief
Russian state developed through several major forms: Kievan Rus’, Muscovy, Russian Empire, Soviet Union, Russian Federation.
The key events in Russian history: the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium Empire, Mongol conquest of Russia, rise of Moscow, peasants serfdom, reforms of Peter the Great, communism, reforms of 1990th.
The key tendencies in Russia’s historical development: geographical expansion and paternalism of the state.


The Ancient Ruses: 7th to 13th Century
The Tribes of Eastern Slavs – the ancient ancestors of Russians occupied Eastern European Valley around 7th century. Slavs were just one of the
(c) Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow several tribes which inhabited the valley, but step by step they became the dominant power.
Russians or Ruses were one of the smaller Slavic tribes, but somehow this name was applied later for the great number of people who settled in the area between Baltic, White, Caspian and Black seas.
The Ruses ascribed supernatural powers to the nature and the Gods they believed in were all named after the sun, the water, the earth... There was a very strong connection to the land and nature and it can still be felt in the language: there are many words to describe forests, fields, sky, water, etc.
The first known East Slavic state emerged in 862 along the Dnepr river valley. Prince Rurik founded the state with the capital in town Kiev that is why the country was called Kievan Rus’. Other major cities of Slavs were Suzdal, Chernigov, Rostov, Vladimir, Novgorod. Kievan Rus’ soon united most of East Slavic lands. In 869 ruler of Kievan Rus’ prince Vladimir adopted Christianity as a dominant religion of the state. Rus’ adopted Christianity from Byzantium and with their religion we adopted much of their culture. It is believed that lack of personal freedom, domination of the state and absolute power of the leaders partly is a result of Byzantium influence.
Unfortunately Kievan Rus’ remained united just for two centuries. The ruling clan was rapidly growing and every prince wanted to get his part of the land. Moreover, regional centers became powerful enough to claim independence from Kiev. So, finally Kievan Rus’ transformed into the bulk of independent and aggressive principalities. The most powerful were Vladimirskoe principality, Galicia and Novgorod republic.

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The Mongol Yoke: 13th to 15th Century
In 13th century Kievan Rus’ was attacked by Mongol Empire. The separate armies of principalities were defeated one by one. As a result most of
(c) Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Russian principalities were vassalized by Mongol Empire. Republic of Novgorod was the only region which remained independent.
Mongol occupation which lasted about 200 years is considered to be crucial for the development of Russia. This invasion lead to further disintegration of Kievan Rus’ – princes had no use cooperating with each other, all their problems were solved by Mongols.
Also, the two centuries of the occupation by Asian invaders influenced culture much and made Russia more different from the rest of Europe. The autocracy of Mongols easily implemented in our culture, we also gained the inclination to collective actions and decisions making, rather than to individual ones.
Under Mongols small regional center Moscow developed rapidly. Moscow was just one of many small towns at north east borders of Kievan Rus’. However several trade routes passed through the town. The other advantage of Moscow was a remote and forested location, which prevented frequent Mongol attacks. Prince Daniil inherited a tiny principality of Moscow in 1303. He widely used the advantages of Moscow and started the development of Moscow as a regional center. Daniil and his descendants managed to establish a good relations with Mongols and used the decline of old principalities to increase the wealth and power of Moscow. Finally, to the end of 15th century Muscovy gained control over the most of Russian lands. Muscovy became powerful enough to claim independence. The key battle versus Mongols took part in 1480 at Kulikovo field near Dnepr river. Russians defeated Mongols and Muscovy became independent state.
Muscovy consolidated all ethnically Russian lands in 16th century and started exploring further.


The Period of Expansion: 16th to 18th Century —
Ivan Grozny, Peter the Great
Under the famous tsar Ivan The Terrible (Ivan Groznyy) Russia conquered Tartar states along Volga river and acquired access to Caspian sea. The colonization of Siberia was also started. Unfortunately the never lasting wars had the devastating effect on Muscovy. Moreover ancient ruling clan of Rurikovichy born out in the beginning of 17th century. There was a growing instability in Muscovy. Russian elites failed to produce a suitable strategy for the developing of the state, there was no widely accepted leader to become a new tsar. As a result Civil War had started in Muscovy.
Period of chaos and civil war has lasted from 1598 till 1613 and was called Time of Troubles (Smutnoye Vremya). There were many candidates who fought for the crown. People were unhappy and insecure, famine started. Unstable situation in Muscovy was used by Sweden and Poland to declare war on Russia. Muscovy lost control over western territories and even Moscow itself was captured be Poles in 1610. However Russia managed to survive. Russian army drove Poles out. Zemskiy Sobor was gathered (every area of Russia sent representative in Moscow to vote for new tsar) and proclaimed noble Mikhail Romanov to be a new tsar in 1613. The dynasty of Romanovs began their 300 years reign.
Early Romanovs had to restore the order in Muscovy. The peace treaties with Sweden and Poland were signed. The new legislation code was issued. According to the code every noble had to serve to the state. Landlords gained absolute power over their peasants. Peasants had no right to move from one landlord to another on
(c) Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow their own. In a few words the serfdom was sanctioned by the state. City dwellers could not change their occupation or move from one town to another. Everyone in Moscow had the obligations however most of the rights were handed by tsar and nobility. Muscovy bacame stable, conservative and closed structure.
In 1682 tsar Peter started to reign in Russia. He believed that only through intensive contacts with Europe and European style reforms Russia can be successfully developed. Peter stimulated Russian nobles to get education in Europe. He hired hundreds of officers, engineers and scientists all over Europe to serve in Russia. The connections with Europe though were unstable cause all the routes passed through Poland and Sweden which prevented the development of Russia. The only chance for Russia to get rid of their influence was to get access to Baltic sea, establish port there and acquire the direct link to Western Europe. However with the archaic Russian army and no navy at all Peter failed in the first attempts to conquered needed territories. He was forced to reform the army and equip it with modern weapon and tactics as well as establish Russian navy. The reorganized forces crashed Swedes and Russia acquired access to Baltic sea. The port of Saint-Petersburg was founded at the newly acquired territories in 1703 straight after the war. Saint-Petersburg was rapidly growing and in several years Peter moved capital here to his beloved city from conservative Moscow. Apart from successful foreign affairs, Peter developed the country much. He reformed government structure and system of courts. He put Orthodox Church under the state control. He obliged nobles to get education and founded national Academy of Science. Peter the Great forced the development of Russia, under his rule Russia became powerful state armed with modern institutions and technologies. In 1721 Peter proclaimed Russia an Empire and became the Emperor.

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The 19th Century: Decembrists, End of the Serfdom, Reforms
After the death of Peter the Great and until the second half of 19th century Russia remained ambitious and aggressive empire. Russian Emperors were focused on expanding the territory and military power of the state. Russian armies fought versus Prussia, Ottoman Empire, France, Persia, Sweden. As the result of these wars Russia joined Crimea, part of Poland, Georgia, Northern Caucuses, Finland, more territories in Siberia. Domestic policy was not so successful. The power of the emperor was still absolute while peasants remained in serfdom and this troubled the economical development. Several well-educated nobles wished to reform the country in a France revolution way but their projects were not used.
They attempted to make a revolution but their armed revolts in 1825 in Saint-Petersburg and Ukraine were easily defeated by the state. Because the riot happened December, the rebels were called Decembrists. It took about 60 years for the state to get ready for the reforms. Emperor Alexander the Second issued the bill granting personal freedom to the peasants only in 1861.
The second half of 19th century was marked with the growing instability in the state. Many oppositional parties as well as terrorist groups occurred. People demand further reforms – constitution and parliament. One of the countless oppositional parties raised in 1861 in Minsk. It was called then RSDRP (Russian Social-Democratic Party), later they started to call themselves Communists.
The 20th century in Russia started with the catastrophe -Russia lost the war against Japan. Despite that Russia managed to sign a beneficial peace treaty (we had to pay a contribution and lost almost no territories), the consequences of the war were hard to underestimate. This failure showed the ineffectiveness of the state system and lead to the numerous riots and strikes all over Russia in 1905-1907. These two years lasted uprisings were so dangerous for Empire that later were called the First Russian Revolution. State managed to calm down the riots. But as a result emperor Nikolay the Second established a Russian Parliament - Duma and granted certain rights and freedoms to the nation. Nikolay also supported the new prime minister Petr Stolypin who was up to continue the reforms.
Unfortunately the reforms were stopped when terrorist killed Stolypin in 1911.


The First Half of the 20th Century: Revolution, Communists, USSR, Stalin's Industrialisation
The First World War started in 1914, Russia was allied with UK and France and fought versus Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire and Turkey. This war changed completely the map of Europe and lead to the collapse of
(c) Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Russian Empire as well. Emperor Nikolay the Second handled the power to the Temporary Government on February 27th 1917. The Temporary government attempted to gain control over the country, but it was supported by the bourgeois only. The situation was used by the Bolsheviks who got popularity among soldiers and workers because of their populist slogans and charismatic leader Vladimir Lenin. Bolsheviks revolted on October 25th 1917. It took four more years of Civil war for Bolsheviks to get control over the whole Russia. To the end of this period Russian republic was completely devastated. Millions of people were killed, industry collapsed, famine started, Russia lost control over Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia.
Iosef Stalin became the head of the Communist party and the state in 1922 right after the death of Lenin. Soon, the new state was proclaimed – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Under Stalin the Soviet Union developed heavy industry, sciences, nuclear technologies. Stalin transformed the weak and ruined agricultural country into the powerful industrial state. The forced industrialization claimed a high price. Most of the population lived in misery, millions of peasants died cause state confiscated all their supplies to feed workers. Many millions of people who were critic sizing the system were jailed and died in prisons. The other specialty of Soviet industrialization was heavy industry orientation. Stalin believed that powerful army is most important for the state, so heavy industry emerged. However the consumer goods industry was stagnant. There was lack of food in the country either.

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The 2nd World War, 2nd Half of the 20th Century,
Modern Times
Hitler declared the war on Russia on June 22nd 1941. During the first phase of the war Germany army defeated Red Army, blocked St.Petersburg and came as close as 30km to Moscow. Red army stopped
(c) Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Germans only in 1943 at the Battle for Stalingrad and started its victorious reconquest of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe which was finished on May 9th 1945. USSR lost about 25 million people in that war, country was ruined but USSR gained the status of superpower and one of the leading country of the world. Soon after the war former allies became enemies. USSR and USA had different point of view on the European future. The new War could start any minute and the world lived under that threat till 80th.
Soviet leaders which followed Stalin followed his ideas – they developed the army and the industry and sciences whish served army needs. They regulated people’s day to day life with ideology and still proclaimed Communism as the nearest and desirable future of USSR. However they were different in a way. Khrushchev accepted that Stalin’s regime
was too cruel and tried to make everyday life of people better, Brezhnev was too conservative and inefficient, Andropov tried to make Russians effective workers but failed. Finally Gorbachov went in charge. He had an idea that the country must be reformed. He started with the policy of glasnost’– free public access to information and perestroika - implementing democratic principles into the state system. But instead of the reforming USSR this lead to the collapse of the state. When people found out what is going on in USSR they just gave it up and in the 1991 the country ceased to exist. Instead of USSR 15 independent states were proclaimed, Russian Federation became the largest successor of former Union and was headed by the president Boris Eltsin.
Eltsin ruled for 8 years. Under Eltsin the country completely changed. We accepted democracy and capitalism as well as new constitution. Everybody was free to choose life philosophy and ideology. Everyone was free to do anything. That was a time of unlimited freedom and almost no regulations of the state. This lead to the stagnation of economy, shocking price rise and mass unemployment. But by the end of the 90s the country passed through several crisises and steady economical growth has started. The second president of Russia Vladimir Putin is opt to make Russia powerful economy. We will see...

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The famous Russian people

13th century
Rublev, Andrei - the most famous Russian icons painter
Donskoy, Dmitri - the Prince who defeated tatars
18th century
Peter the Great - the person who created a Russian Empire and made it one of the most powerful countries
Ekaterina II (Great) - The most successful imperess of Russia, a very powerful and smart women.
Lomonosov, Mikhail - a peasant who lived in the north of Russia was so intelligent that he became the greatest scientist in Russia. He worked in physics, chemistry, math, literature and many other areas.
Suvorov, Alexander - the best Russian general. In the 18 century he defeated Osman Empire and almost took Istambul, he defeated French army in Italy and Austria.
19th and 20th century
Pushkin, Alexander - genius poet, the main person in the Russian literature. (the portait below)

Kutuzov, Mikhail - is a student of Suvorov, won the War of 1812 year when Napoleon attacked Russia and captured Moscow. By his leadership we captured Paris.
Mendeleev, Dmitri - famous chemist, who invented the world-famous periodic system of elements (in 1869).
Pavlov, Ivan - a Russian biologist, who came out with an important work on animal and human reflexes ("pavlov's dog")
Tolstoy, Lev - a famous and great Russian writer. The author of "Anna Karenina" and "War and Peace". (the portrait below)

Dostoevsky, Fyodor - famous writer: the most popular novel is "The Crime and Punishment". Perhaps the best known Russian writer in the west.
Tchaikovski, Petr - best known Russian composer
Repin, Ivan - one the most popular painters (in Russia).
20th century
Lenin, Vladimir - is the "father of Russian revolution", the first communist leader. His real name is Ulyanov.

Krupskaya, Nadezhda - the wife of V.I.Lenin.
Tsvetayeva, Marina - A famous Russian poet
Stalin, Joseph - well known for his repression leadership
Zhukov, General - is a general who defeated Nazis.
Gagarin, Yuri - the first man in the space (1961). A national hero and a nice guy.
Vysotsky, Vladimir - a great poet, singer, and actor (70s).
Gorbachev, Mikhail- the Soviet leader who abolished the USSR
Pugachyova, Alla - used to be a very famous pop singer in the 80s, now she doesn't sing a lot, but is stilled loved by many Russians. I suppose it's more not for her songs, but for the image.
Eltsin, Boris - the first President of the Russian Federation.
Putin, Vladimir - the second President of the Russian Federation

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Russian Character and Customs

Most Russians are not very different from most westerners in the way they perceive things or in their desired lifestyle. However, there are certain peculiarities, which may emerge when you get to know your Russian friends closer. Mainly they emerge from the old times, as well as the communist upbringing. Below we tried to list the most common traits of the Russian character. It doesn't mean that everybody is like this, but you have quite a good chance of noticing at least one thing in your average Russian's behaviour. If you are lucky enough to meet a person whose character incorporates all of the items from the list below, we can assure you that this person possesses the pure Russian character and should be treated with high respect. If you decide to become a Russian, you can use the list below as guidelines.

• We are a free nation. Here we despise all the rules. It’s an honor for our drivers to move on the red light or to bother other drivers and scorn pedestrians.
• It’s cool to do nothing and to just lie on the sofa thinking about how great you are. Really, Russia is such an amazing country and we have given the world so much, that we can rest a bit.
• If you're invited for a meal, expect that the hosts will feed you until you feel completely full and not capable of moving. If you think that's dangerous for your health, or you're on a diet, we advise you to emulate satiety, otherwise you will end up badly.
• We value generousity. We can give you the last piece of bread we have if we believe you really need it. And we expect the same in return.
• Some of us are naturally indifferent; we don’t care too much about dirt on the streets, saving money, the war in Tchechnya, breaking the rules, risking without particular reason, drinking too much...
• ... and most of us are very proud. Don't talk to us about our vices, we won't listen anyway. And don't dare to critisize the way our country is -- Russia is the best place and we will prove it to the whole world very soon.
• Some of us are quite emotional, but somehow it’s all kept inside most of the time. We may seem a bit cold and too much to ourselves at first, but when you get to know us better, we're like a volcanoe.
• We are not politically correct, we take pleasure in talking our opinions out loud and we will not use fancy words to conceal our real feelings.
• We don't feel easy about talking to strangers on the street, but if you start conversation saying that you're from another country or ask for some help, there's a good chance we will be very open, because we are naturally curious about foreigners.
• Some of us think that foreigners are bloody rich; so if we spot a foreigner, we try to make some money on him, because we still have this communist idea that everybody should be equal.
• Women and old women are very respected here. It’s considered polite if while being in the metro and seeing a woman or an old woman coming in and there’re no free seats, man offers her his seat.
• Beware of the babushkas (old women). They are active, pushy and very proud of themselves, so if you do something not the way they think you should’ve done, better disappear.
• When you are invited to the party bring something with you - beer is usually accepted with pleasure.
• If you invited a girl or a woman somewhere be prepared to pay for her everywhere. If you invited a man, he’ll pay for himself, and there's a good chance he'll pay for you as well without telling you about it.
• Men should be strong and assertive and women should be smart and beautiful. That's just one of our stereotypes.
• No, Russians are not racists. We were grown up in the world, where everybody is equal and where the friendship of nations is an important part of our agenda. If you notice one of us staring occasionally at a black person, it's just because we are curious -- there's not many black people in Russia... The only word of warning is about older people, who are sometimes too much patriotic, so be careful: don't offend their feelings.
• Yes, we love vodka, but we're not alcoholics. Despite what some people think, Russians are not drunkards, they just have a special resistance to alchohol, that's why they can drink so much. And we actually get our strength from it and it warms us during the cold winters. By the way, if you drink with us, you'll have to drink as much as we do, or we will be offended.
• Russians are weird. We think that a sudden change from communism to capitalism has something to do with it, but this topic deserves a more thorough exploration. The only smart explanation that can be proposed here is that some of us jumped too deep into capitalist world, while some stayed too far behind.
• Russians are hooligans. It's not because we're bad - we just like everything extraordinary. But too often we don't express this feeling enough, so when it comes out, it's like a volcanoe. That's why you hear our tourists singing folk songs at 3am and that's why we make a revolution every 80 years.

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• We believe in magnetism. The thing is, that every so often the sun sends some electro-magnetic signals and this affects the whole course of events on the earth, including our mood and feelings. So, if you see two housewives discussing how bad their day went because of the electro-magnetic storm that happened in the afternoon - don't think they are adepts of some sort of new age philosophy, it's completely normal here.
• Yes, we are superstitious. And if you want to shake our hand, you can never ever do it through the door: you have to come in, otherwise we will quarrel. If you come back to your house just after you left - look at the mirror, it's for your own good. If you're sitting at the corner of the table, you won't be married for 7 years. If a fork falls, a woman is going to come, if a knife falls, a man will certainly appear.
• Most of us know a few words in English, but we are too shy to speak - no practice, you see... However, you will be surprised at how many things are written in English on the streets: it is used to show a shop or a cafe, to advertise a new product, and there's a lot of foreign goods. Also, almost more than a half of Russian products have their ingredients listed in English.
Russians learn English at school, and many people can understand the basics, but are shy to speak to a stranger. We estimate about every one out of five Moscovitans can speak English well enough, and there's a higher chance among younger people.
• We like all things fancy. But our understanding of it is very original. You will often see men in suits or tucked-in shirts and office trousers (even in clubs on Friday night), while women prefer noticeable and sexy outfits. The colors for men are usually dark or grey, while women like light and white colors. This is a generalization and of course you'll see a lot of different people and outfits.
• A club is not a place to party - it's the place for the chosen ones.
If you want to visit clubs, they have this thing called "dress code" where you might not be allowed because you wear Nike sneakers, old khakis or a fleece coat. However, the rules are more lax for foreigners, so if unsure about your appearance just speak English while you're passing the club's entrance, and you're guaranteed to get in.
• We express what we feel, but we're not extrovert. We shout in public and we kiss in public.It's acceptable to show affection in public (look at how many kissing couples there are on the long escalators in Moscow metro!) but extrovert behaviour may be resisted. You won't see a lot of people sitting in public places with their legs stretched or crossed (in an American way) and Russians do not gesticulate much when they are talking.
• Most Russians feel a bit strange about gays and lesbians, but prefer not to talk or express their feelings about it. There is however, quite a large gay & lesbian community in Moscow and St. Petersburg and specialized websites have thousands and thousands of profiles featuring gorgeous queer men and women.
• Smoking is a national sport, but many people understand it's not good for health and will always agree to turn off their cigarette if it bothers you.
Many people have a positive attitude towards healthy lifestyle and have a daily morning exercise routine or run in the park.

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Business Etiquette

Business is conducted in quite a professional manner. Gone are the times when you could be screwed up at any corner, nowadays businesses strive for long-term reputation and loyal customers. Avoid unregistered companies, salesmen from the streets, those who only provide a cell phone for contacts, and don't choose whom to deal with through shady Russian classifieds newspapers. A reputable company will usually have an office or two in the center and give the landline (city) number (not only a mobile) and an e-mail or web address as contacts.
If you're coming for a business meeting or a conference, it is usually considered polite for the inviting company to "attach" a special person to you, who will show you the city, take you to the most important sights, help you with your Russian, and get you the best room in the hotel. You might also be offered traditional Russian adventures, such as a visit to a public steam-bath (Russian sauna - banya) and a few shots of vodka in a local bar or at somebody's place.
The attitude towards time is normal: it's polite to be on time, 5 minutes are tolerated, while nobody will wait for longer than 15 minutes.


Russian Laws & Regulations

Here's some information about what might happen if you make a small infringement in Russia and how to deal with it:
Not having a visa registration: the fine is usually around $5-30 US and one has to spend time in police station (not more than 3 hours). The chances you get checked are not high. What you can do in case a policeman stopped you, is to pretend naive, not to speak Russian, not to show you have money. Another strategy is to propose to go to your hotel or to the police station to make an official fine, and contact your embassy afterwards (thanks to Ben Parke for the tip!). In any case, there's a law that a policeman can only look at your passport from your own hands. If you show you know the law, the policeman will know you know the rules, and will not make problems.
After a cop realizes he won't get much from you (money is what they want), he'll let you go and try to find someone else, who'll agree to help them towards their living.
Recently the rules have became stricter in Moscow (because of the terrorist attacks), but the checks are targeted more towards people from CIS and Caucasus (so, if you look like you might be from there, you will be stopped more often, unfortunately). Don't worry, it's just a check-up.Stealing can get you from $600 fine up to two years in prison. So if you feel some kind of strange excitement about stealing, it's still not a good idea to try to steal something in shops or somewhere else, even if you think nobody's watching you.
Drug posession (including marijuana).All drugs are illegal in Russia, but still are widely in use. The law has changed in May 2004 and now if you carry maximum 2 grams of marijuana or 0.5 grams of hash and can prove it's for your personal use, nobody can fine you, but you may be put in as a patient in a drug clinic and also asked where you got it. If you carry less than 10 times this amount, the maximum fine is $35 US (in addition to various unpleasanties). Same for growing up to 20 plants of marijuana.
If you carry more than that, you will most surely get into prison for at least 2 years up to 7 years. Having read about all these rules, keep in mind that not all policemen in Moscow may yet know about these new regulation (#115), so it's better to avoid troubles, if you can.
The laws on drugs are strict, and it's better not to take chances and surely you're not allowed to bring them over the border. This also concerns strong medicines and you should seek advice from the Russian customs before bringing them in.

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Step 1: What Is a Russian Visa:
A Russian visa is a special document attached to your passport, that grants you a permit to enter and to leave the Russian Federation during a period of time specified in the visa. Every foreign citizen needs a Russian visa to enter / leave Russia, except nationals of some CIS countries (former USSR without Baltic States).
A Russian visa looks like this:
Generally, there are six types of Russian visas: 1) a tourist visa, 2) a business visa, 3) a student visa, 4) a personal (private) visa, 5) a transit visa, 6) a short 72-hour visa. Each visa type corresponds to the purpose of your visit.
However, many people come for a short business trip with tourist visas, or to visit their friends with business visas. So, when choosing the type of visa, the only consideration should be — price / speed of processing / period of stay / the number of entries, and not the formal name of the visa.
Generally, the best options in terms of price, processing speed and flexibility are tourist and business visas. It's better to get a tourist visa if you plan to stay in Russia no longer than one month, and need a single- or a double-entry only. It's better to get a business visa if you plan to stay in Russia longer than 1 month and / or need a multiple-entry visa.
It is easier to obtain a tourist visa, because a business visa costs more, and takes longer to process, although it may save you time and money if you are going to visit Russia several times during 1 year.


Step 3: What is the Invitation and How to Get It:
All the required documents that are listed above are easy to get and you should already have them available. The only document that you don't already have is the invitation.
The invitation (also called visa support or tourist confirmation and tourist voucher) is a special document issued by the party that invites you to Russia. The invitation is required by a Russian consulate to be able to process your visa. For every type of visa, there exists a different type of invitation (tourist, business, private, student). For example, to apply for a tourist visa, you'll need a tourist invitation (a tourist visa support). A tourist invitation (or visa support) looks something like this (though it may look different as well):


The invitation (visa support) can be issued by a Russian travel agency or by a company or organisation authorized by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA).
Important: According to the new Russian law regulating the status of foreign citizens in Russia (effective 1 Nov 2002), all the functions of visa support authorization will gradually pass from MFA to the Russian Interior Ministry (RIM). If doesn't affect you as a traveler, however, you may expect a slight change in visa support (invitation) processing time and costs.
It's always better to ask the Russian consulate first whether they accept copies of invitations or only originals and to specify it when applying for an invitation to facilitate processing.
A tourist invitation is needed to get a tourist visa. The tourist invitation comprises two papers: tourist confirmation and tourist voucher. It usually costs about $30 US and takes from 1 hour to 1 day to be issued. Usually, a copy of the invitation is acceptable to the consulate (a fax, a printed out scanned copy), but sometimes they require originals (can be sent by post). When you receive this invitation, you can take it along with the other documents (see Step 2) to the consulate and apply for your Russian visa.
A business invitation is more expensive, because it requires some fees to be paid to the Russian Interior Ministry and takes longer to issue. At the same time, a business visa, that can be obtained with this type of invitation, allows a longer stay (up to 12 months) and multiple entries (which is not possible with a tourist visa). With a business visa, a foreigner can continiously stay in Russia for not longer than 6 months (you may leave for 1 day after 6 months and then come back, and it'll be ok).
The price of a business invitation to obtain a visa for a 3 months stay, double-entry would cost about $90 US. This invitation can be either sent to you by fax or e-mail (if the consulate accepts copies), posted (if the consulate requires originals), or sent by telex directly to the consulate (the most convenient option for you, because you just need to bring your passport, photos, application form and a fee, but also slightly more expensive).


Sometimes, the Russian consulate may require a cover letter containing your name, dates and points of arrival / departure in Russia your itinerary, travel agency reference number -- that is the same information as in the invitation. Usually it is needed if you obtain your visa support through a travel agency in the USA, however, if you are required to present the itinerary, ask the travel agency where you are obtaining your visa support to send you one.

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